Jumat, 25 Januari 2013
kisah nabi khaidir ( harry_haiqal )
Salah satu kisah Al-Quran yang sangat mengagumkan dan dipenuhi dengan misteri adalah, kisah seseorang hamba yang Allah s.w.t memberinya rahmat dari sisi-Nya dan mengajarinya ilmu. Kisah tersebut terdapat dalam surah al-Kahfi di mana ayat-ayatnya dimulai dengan cerita Nabi Musa, yaitu:
"Dan (ingatlah) ketika Musa berkata kepada muridnya: 'Aku tidak akan berhenti (berjalan) sebelum sampai ke pertemuan dua buah lautan; atau aku akan berjalan-jalan sampai bertahun-tahun." (QS. al-Kahfi: 60)
Kalimat yang samar menunjukkan bahawa Musa telah bertekad untuk meneruskan perjalanan selama waktu yang cukup lama kecuali jika beliau mampu mencapai majma' al-Bahrain (pertemuan dua buah lautan). Di sana terdapat suatu perjanjian penting yang dinanti-nanti oleh Musa ketika beliau sampai di majma' al-Bahrain. Anda dapat merenungkan betapa tempat itu sangat misteri dan samar. Para musafir telah merasakan keletihan dalam waktu yang lama untuk mengetahui hakikat tempat ini. Ada yang mengatakan bahawa tempat itu adalah laut Persia dan Romawi. Ada yang mengatakan lagi bahawa itu adalah laut Jordania atau Kulzum. Ada yang mengatakan juga bahawa itu berada di Thanjah. Ada yang berpendapat, itu terletak di Afrika. Ada lagi yang mengatakan bahawa itu adalah laut Andalus. Tetapi mereka tidak dapat menunjukkan bukti yang kuat dari tempat-tempat itu.
Seandainya tempat itu harus disebutkan nescaya Allah s.w.t akan rnenyebutkannya. Namun Al-Quran al-Karim sengaja menyembunyikan tempat itu, sebagaimana Al-Quran tidak menyebutkan kapan itu terjadi. Begitu juga, Al-Quran tidak menyebutkan nama-nama orang-orang yang terdapat dalam kisah itu kerana adanya hikmah yang tinggi yang kita tidak mengetahuinya. Kisah tersebut berhubungan dengan suatu ilmu yang tidak kita miliki, kerana biasanya ilmu yang kita kuasai berkaitan dengan sebab-sebab tertentu. Dan tidak juga ia berkaitan dengan ilmu para nabi kerana biasanya ilmu para nabi berdasarkan wahyu. Kita sekarang berhadapan dengan suatu ilmu dari suatu hakikat yang samar; ilmu yang berkaitan dengan takdir yang sangat tinggi; ilmu yang dipenuhi dengan rangkaian tabir yang tebal.
Di samping itu, tempat pertemuan dan waktunya antara hamba yang mulia ini dan Musa juga tidak kita ketahui. Demikianlah kisah itu terjadi tanpa memberitahumu kapan terjadi dan di tempat mana. Al-Quran sengaja menyembunyikan hal itu, bahkan Al-Quran sengaja menyembunyikan pahlawan dari kisah ini. Allah s.w.t mengisyaratkan hal tersebut dalam firman-Nya:
"Seorang hamba di antara hamba-hamba Kami, yang telah Kami berikan kepadanya rahmat dari sisi Kami, dan yang telah Kami ajarkan kepadanya ilmu dari sisi Kami." (QS. al-Kahfi: 65)
Al-Quran al-Karim tidak menyebutkan siapa nama hamba yang dimaksud, yaitu seorang hamba yang dicari oleh Musa agar ia dapat belajar darinya. Nabi Musa adalah seseorang yang diajak berbicara langsung oleh Allah s.w.t dan ia salah seorang ulul azmi dari para rasul. Beliau adalah pemilik mukjizat tongkat dan tangan yang bercahaya dan seorang Nabi yang Taurat diturunkan kepadanya tanpa melalui perantara. Namun dalam kisah ini, beliau menjadi seorang pencari ilmu yang sederhana yang harus belajar kepada gurunya dan menahan penderitaan di tengah-tengah belajarnya itu. Lalu, siapakah gurunya atau pengajarnya? Pengajarnya adalah seorang hamba yang tidak disebutkan namanya dalam Al-Quran meskipun dalam hadis yang suci disebutkan bahawa ia adalah Khidir as.
Musa berjalan bersama hamba yang menerima ilmunya dari Allah s.w.t tanpa sebab-sebab penerimaan ilmu yang biasa kita ketahui. Mula-mula Khidir menolak ditemani oleh Musa. Khidir memberitahu Musa bahawa ia tidak akan mampu bersabar bersamanya. Akhirnya, Khidir mahu ditemani oleh Musa tapi dengan syarat, hendaklah ia tidak bertanya tentang apa yang dilakukan Khidir sehingga Khidir menceritakan kepadanya. Khidir merupakan simbol ketenangan dan diam; ia tidak berbicara dan gerak- gerinya menimbulkan kegelisahan dan kebingungan dalam diri Musa. Sebahagian tindakan yang dilakukan oleh Khidir jelas-jelas dianggap sebagai kejahatan di mata Musa; sebahagian tindakan Khidir yang lain dianggap Musa sebagai hal yang tidak memiliki erti apa pun; dan tindakan yang lain justru membuat Musa bingung dan membuatnya menentang. Meskipun Musa memiliki ilmu yang tinggi dan kedudukan yang luar biasa namun beliau mendapati dirinya dalam keadaan kebingungan melihat perilaku hamba yang mendapatkan kurnia ilmunya dari sisi Allah s.w.t.
Ilmu Musa yang berlandaskan syariat menjadi bingung ketika menghadapi ilmu hamba ini yang berlandaskan hakikat. Syariat merupakan bahagian dari hakikat. Terkadang hakikat menjadi hal yang sangat samar sehingga para nabi pun sulit memahaminya. Awan tebal yang menyelimuti kisah ini dalam Al-Quran telah menurunkan hujan lebat yang darinya mazhab- mazhab sufi di dalam Islam menjadi segar dan tumbuh. Bahkan terdapat keyakinan yang menyatakan adanya hamba-hamba Allah s.w.t yang bukan termasuk nabi dan syuhada namun para nabi dan para syuhada "cemburu" dengan ilmu mereka. Keyakinan demikian ini timbul kerana pengaruh kisah ini.
Para ulama berbeza pendapat berkenaan dengan Khidir. Sebahagian mereka mengatakan bahawa ia seorang wali dari wali-wali Allah s.w.t. Sebahagian lagi mengatakan bahawa ia seorang nabi. Terdapat banyak cerita bohong tentang kehidupan Khidir dan bagaimana keadaannya. Ada yang mengatakan bahawa ia akan hidup sampai hari kiamat. Yang jelas, kisah Khidir tidak dapat dijabarkan melalui nas-nas atau hadis-hadis yang dapat dipegang (otentik). Tetapi kami sendiri berpendapat bahawa beliau meninggal sebagaimana meninggalnya hamba-hamba Allah s.w.t yang lain. Sekarang, kita tinggal membahas kewaliannya dan kenabiannya. Tentu termasuk masalah yang sangat rumit atau membingungkan. Kami akan menyampaikan kisahnya dari awal sebagaimana yang dikemukakan dalam Al-Quran.
Nabi Musa as berbicara di tengah-tengah Bani Israil. Ia mengajak mereka untuk menyembah Allah s.w.t dan menceritakan kepada mereka tentang kebenaran. Pembicaraan Nabi Musa sangat komprehensif dan tepat. Setelah beliau menyampaikan pembicaraannya, salah seorang Bani Israil bertanya: "Apakah ada di muka bumi seseorang yang lebih alim darimu wahai Nabi Allah?" Dengan nada emosi, Musa menjawab: "Tidak ada."
Allah s.w.t tidak setuju dengan jawapan Musa. Lalu Allah s.w.t mengutus Jibril untuk bertanya kepadanya: "Wahai Musa, tidakkah engkau mengetahui di mana Allah s.w.t meletakkan ilmu-Nya?" Musa mengetahui bahawa ia terburu-buru mengambil suatu keputusan. Jibril kembali berkata kepadanya: "Sesungguhnya Allah s.w.t mempunyai seorang hamba yang berada di majma' al-Bahrain yang ia lebih alim daripada kamu." Jiwa Nabi Musa yang mulia rindu untuk menambah ilmu, lalu timbullah keinginan dalam dirinya untuk pergi dan menemui hamba yang alim ini. Musa bertanya bagaimana ia dapat menemui orang alim itu. Kemudian ia mendapatkan perintah untuk pergi dan membawa ikan di keranjang. Ketika ikan itu hidup dan melompat ke lautan maka di tempat itulah Musa akan menemui hamba yang alim.
Akhirnya, Musa pergi guna mencari ilmu dan beliau ditemani oleh seorang pembantunya yang masih muda. Pemuda itu membawa ikan di keranjang. Kemudian mereka berdua pergi untuk mencari hamba yang alim dan soleh. Tempat yang mereka cari adalah tempat yang sangat samar dan masalah ini berkaitan dengan hidupnya ikan di keranjang dan kemudian ikan itu akan melompat ke laut. Namun Musa berkeinginan kuat untuk menemukan hamba yang alim ini walaupun beliau harus berjalan sangat jauh dan menempuh waktu yang lama.
Musa berkata kepada pembantunya: "Aku tidak memberimu tugas apa pun kecuali engkau memberitahuku di mana ikan itu akan berpisah denganmu." Pemuda atau pembantunya berkata: "Sungguh engkau hanya memberi aku tugas yang tidak terlalu berat." Kedua orang itu sampai di suatu batu di sisi laut. Musa tidak kuat lagi menahan rasa kantuk sedangkan pembantunya masih bergadang. Angin bergerak ke tepi lautan sehingga ikan itu bergerak dan hidup lalu melompat ke laut. Melompatnya ikan itu ke laut sebagai tanda yang diberitahukan Allah s.w.t kepada Musa tentang tempat pertemuannya dengan seseorang yang bijaksana yang mana Musa datang untuk belajar kepadanya. Musa bangkit dari tidurnya dan tidak mengetahui bahawa ikan yang dibawanya telah melompat ke laut sedangkan pembantunya lupa untuk menceritakan peristiwa yang terjadi. Lalu Musa bersama pemuda itu melanjutkan perjalanan dan mereka lupa terhadap ikan yang dibawanya. Kemudian Musa ingat pada makanannya dan ia telah merasakan keletihan. Ia berkata kepada pembantunya: "Cuba bawalah kepada kami makanan siang kami, sungguh kami telah merasakan keletihan akibat dari perjalanan ini."
Pembantunya mulai ingat tentang apa yang terjadi. Ia pun mengingat bagaimana ikan itu melompat ke lautan. Ia segera menceritakan hal itu kepada Nabi Musa. Ia meminta maaf kepada Nabi Musa kerana lupa menceritakan hal itu. Setan telah melupakannya. Keanehan apa pun yang menyertai peristiwa itu, yang jelas ikan itu memang benar-benar berjalan dan bergerak di lautan dengan suatu cara yang mengagumkan. Nabi Musa merasa gembira melihat ikan itu hidup kembali di lautan dan ia berkata: "Demikianlah yang kita inginkan." Melompatnya ikan itu ke lautan adalah sebagai tanda bahawa di tempat itulah mereka akan bertemu dengan seseorang lelaki yang alim. Nabi Musa dan pembantunya kembali dan menyelusuri tempat yang dilaluinya sampai ke tempat yang di situ ikan yang dibawanya bergerak dan menuju ke lautan.
Perhatikanlah permulaan kisah: bagaimana Anda berhadapan dengan suatu kesamaran dan tabir yang tebal di mana ketika Anda menjumpai suatu tabir di depan Anda terpampang maka sebelum tabir itu tersingkap Anda harus berhadapan dengan tabir-tabir yang lain. Akhirnya, Musa sampai di tempat di mana ikan itu melompat. Mereka berdua sampai di batu di mana keduanya tidur di dekat situ, lalu ikan yang mereka bawa keluar menuju laut. Di sanalah mereka mendapatkan seorang lelaki. Kami tidak mengetahui namanya, dan bagaimana bentuknya, dan bagaimana bajunya; kami pun tidak mengetahui usianya. Yang kita ketahui hanyalah gambaran dalam yang dijelaskan oleh Al-Quran: "Lalu mereka bertemu dengan seorang hamba di antara hamba-hamba Kami, yang telah Kami berikan kepadanya rahrnat dari sisi Kami, dan yang telah Kami ajarkan kepadanya ilmu dari sisi Kami. "
Inilah aspek yang penting dalam kisah itu. Kisah itu terfokus pada sesuatu yang ada di dalam jiwa, bukan tertuju pada hal-hal yang bersifat fizik atau lahiriah. Allah s.w.t berfirman:
"Maka tatkala mereka berjalan sampai ke pertemuan dua buah laut itu, maka mereka lalai akan ikannya, lalu ikan itu melompat mengambil jalannya ke laut itu. Tatkala mereka berjalan lebih jauh, berkatalah Musa kepada muridnya: 'Bawalah ke mari makanan kita; sesungguhnya kita merasa letih kerana perjalanan kita ini.' Muridnya menjawab: 'Tahukah kamu tatkala kita mencari tempat berlindung di batu tadi, maka sesungguhnya aku lupa (menceritakan tentang) ikan itu dan tidak adalah yang melupakan aku untuk menceritakannya kecuali setan dan ikan itu mengambil jalannya ke laut dengan cara yang aneh sekali.' Musa berkata: 'Itulah (tempat) yang kita cari; lalu keduanya kembali, mengikuti jejak mereka semula. Lalu mereka bertemu dengan seorang hamba di antara hamba-hamba Kami, yang telah Kami berikan kepadanya rahmat dari sisi Kami, dan yang telah Kami ajarkan kepadanya ilmu dari sisi Kami. " (QS. al-Kahfi: 61-65)
Bukhari mengatakan bahawa Musa dan pembantunya menemukan Khidir di atas sejadah hijau di tengah-tengah lautan. Ketika Musa melihatnya, ia menyampaikan salam kepadanya. Khidir berkata: "Apakah di bumimu ada salam? Siapa kamu?" Musa menjawab: "Aku adalah Musa." Khidir berkata: "Bukankah engkau Musa dari Bani Israil. Bagimu salam wahai Nabi dari Bani Israil." Musa berkata: "Dari mana kamu mengenal saya?" Khidir menjawab: "Sesungguhnya yang mengenalkan kamu kepadaku adalah juga yang memberitahu aku siapa kamu. Lalu, apa yang engkau inginkan wahai Musa?" Musa berkata dengan penuh kelembutan dan kesopanan: "Apakah aku dapat mengikutimu agar engkau dapat mengajariku sesuatu yang engkau telah memperoleh kurnia dari-Nya." Khidir berkata: "Tidakkah cukup di tanganmu Taurat dan bukankah engkau telah mendapatkan wahyu. Sungguh wahai Musa, jika engkau ingin mengikutiku engkau tidak akan mampu bersabar bersamaku."
Kita ingin memperhatikan sejenak perbezaan antara pertanyaan Musa yang penuh dengan kesopanan dan kelembutan dan jawapan Khidir yang tegas di mana ia memberitahu Musa bahawa ilmunya tidak harus diketahui oleh Musa, sebagaimana ilmu Musa tidak diketahui oleh Khidir. Para ahli tafsir mengemukakan bahawa Khidir berkata kepada Musa: "Ilmuku tidak akan engkau ketahui dan engkau tidak akan mampu sabar untuk menanggung derita dalam memperoleh ilmu itu. Aspek-aspek lahiriah yang engkau kuasai tidak dapat menjadi landasan dan ukuran untuk menilai ilmuku. Barangkali engkau akan melihat dalam tindakan- tindakanku yang tidak engkau fahami sebab-sebabnya. Oleh kerana itu, wahai Musa, engkau tidak akan mampu bersabar ketika ingin mendapatkan ilmuku." Musa mendapatkan suatu pernyataan yang tegas dari Khidir namun beliau kembali mengharapnya untuk mengizinkannya menyertainya untuk belajar darinya. Musa berkata kepadanya bahawa insya-Allah ia akan mendapatinya sebagai orang yang sabar dan tidak akan menentang sedikit pun.
Perhatikanlah bagaimana Musa, seorang Nabi yang berdialog dengan Allah s.w.t, merendah di hadapan hamba ini dan ia menegaskan bahawa ia tidak akan menentang perintahnya. Hamba Allah s.w.t yang namanya tidak disebutkan dalam Al-Quran menyatakan bahawa di sana terdapat syarat yang harus dipenuhi Musa jika ia bersikeras ingin menyertainya dan belajar darinya. Musa bertanya tentang syarat ini, lalu hamba yang soleh ini menentukan agar Musa tidak bertanya sesuatu pun sehingga pada saatnya nanti ia akan mengetahuinya atau hamba yang soleh itu akan memberitahunya. Musa sepakat atas syarat tersebut dan kemudian mereka pun pergi. Perhatikanlah firman Allah s.w.t dalam surah al-Kahfi:
"Musa berkata kepadanya: 'Bolehkah aku mengikutimu supaya kamu mengajarkan kepadaku ilmu yang benar di antara ilmu-ilmu yang telah diajarkan kepadamu ?' Dia menjawab: 'Sesungguhnya kamu sekali-kali tidak akan sanggup sabar bersamaku. Dan bagaimana kamu dapat sabar atas sesuatu, yang kamu belum mempunyai pengetahuan yang cukup tentang hal itu?' Musa berkata: 'Insya-Allah kamu akan mendapati aku sebagai orang yang sabar, dan aku tidak akan menentangmu dalam sesuatu urusan pun.' Dia berkata: 'Jika kamu mengikutiku, maka janganlah kamu menanyakan kepadaku tentang sesuatu pun, sampai aku sendiri menerangkannya kepadamu.'" (QS. al-Kahfi: 66-70)
Musa pergi bersama Khidir. Mereka berjalan di tepi laut. Kemudian terdapat perahu yang berlayar lalu mereka berbicara dengan orang-orang yang ada di sana agar mahu mengangkut mereka. Para pemilik perahu mengenal Khidir. Lalu mereka pun membawanya berserta Musa, tanpa meminta upah sedikit pun kepadanya. Ini sebagai bentuk penghormatan kepada Khidir. Namun Musa dibuat terkejut ketika perahu itu berlabuh dan ditinggalkan oleh para pemiliknya, Khidir melubangi perahu itu. Ia mencabut papan demi papan dari perahu itu, lalu ia melemparkannya ke laut sehingga papan-papan itu dibawa ombak ke tempat yang jauh.
Musa menyertai Khidir dan melihat tindakannya dan kemudian ia berfikir. Musa berkata kepada dirinya sendiri: "Apa yang aku lakukan di sini, mengapa aku berada di tempat ini dan menemani laki-laki ini? Mengapa aku tidak tinggal bersama Bani Israil dan membacakan Kitab Allah s.w.t sehingga mereka taat kepadaku? Sungguh Para pemilik perahu ini telah mengangkut kami tanpa meminta upah. Mereka pun memuliakan kami tetapi guruku justru merosak perahu itu dan melubanginya." Tindakan Khidir di mata Musa adalah tindakan yang tercela. Kemudian bangkitlah emosi Musa sebagai bentuk kecemburuannya kepada kebenaran. Ia terdorong untuk bertanya kepada gurunya dan ia lupa tentang syarat yang telah diajukannya, agar ia tidak bertanya apa pun yang terjadi. Musa berkata: "Apakah engkau melubanginya agar para penumpangnya tenggelam? Sungguh engkau telah melakukan sesuatu yang tercela." Mendengar pertanyaan lugas Musa, hamba Allah s.w.t itu menoleh kepadanya dan menunjukkan bahawa usaha Musa untuk belajar darinya menjadi sia-sia kerana Musa tidak mampu lagi bersabar. Musa meminta maaf kepada Khidir kerana ia lupa dan mengharap kepadanya agar tidak menghukumnya.
Kemudian mereka berdua berjalan melewati suatu kebun yang dijadikan tempat bermain oleh anak-anak kecil. Ketika anak-anak kecil itu sudah letih bermain, salah seorang mereka tampak bersandar di suatu pohon dan rasa kantuk telah menguasainya. Tiba-tiba, Musa dibuat terkejut ketika melihat hamba Allah s.w.t ini membunuh anak kecil itu. Musa dengan lantang bertanya kepadanya tentang kejahatan yang baru saja dilakukannya, yaitu membunuh anak laki-laki yang tidak berdosa. Hamba Allah s.w.t itu kembali mengingatkan Musa bahawa ia tidak akan mampu bersabar bersamanya. Musa meminta maaf kepadanya kerana lagi-lagi ia lupa. Musa berjanji tidak akan bertanya lagi. Musa berkata ini adalah kesempatan terakhirku untuk menemanimu. Mereka pun pergi dan meneruskan perjalanan. Mereka memasuki suatu desa yang sangat bakhil. Musa tidak mengetahui mengapa mereka berdua pergi ke desa itu dan mengapa tinggal dan bermalam di sana. Makanan yang mereka bawa habis, lalu mereka meminta makanan kepada penduduk desa itu, tetapi penduduk itu tidak mahu memberi dan tidak mahu menjamu mereka.
Kemudian datanglah waktu petang. Kedua orang itu ingin beristirahat di sebelah dinding yang hampir roboh. Musa dibuat terkejut ketika melihat hamba itu berusaha membangun dinding yang nyaris roboh itu. Bahkan ia menghabiskan waktu malam untuk memperbaiki dinding itu dan membangunnya seperti baru. Musa sangat hairan melihat tindakan gurunya. Bagi Musa, desa yang bakhil itu seharusnya tidak layak untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang gratis ini. Musa berkata: "Seandainya engkau mau, engkau bisa mendapat upah atas pembangunan tembok itu." Mendengar perkataan Musa itu, hamba Allah s.w.t itu berkata kepadanya: "Ini adalah batas perpisahan antara dirimu dan diriku." Hamba Allah s.w.t itu mengingatkan Musa tentang pertanyaan yang seharusnya tidak dilontarkan dan ia mengingatkannya bahawa pertanyaan yang ketiga adalah akhir dari pertemuan.
Kemudian hamba Allah s.w.t itu menceritakan kepada Musa dan membongkar kesamaran dan kebingungan yang dihadapi Musa. Setiap tindakan hamba yang soleh itu—yang membuat Musa bingung—bukanlah hasil dari rekayasanya atau dari inisiatif sendiri, ia hanya sekadar menjadi jambatan yang digerakkan oleh kehendak Yang Maha Tingi di mana kehendak yang tinggi ini menyiratkan suatu hikmah yang tersembunyi. Tindakan-tindakan yang secara lahiriah tampak keras namun pada hakikatnya justru menyembunyikan rahmat dan kasih sayang. Demikianlah bahawa aspek lahiriah bertentangan dengan aspek batiniah. Hal inilah yang tidak diketahui oleh Musa. Meskipun Musa memiliki ilmu yang sangat luas tetapi ilmunya tidak sebanding dengan hamba ini. Ilmu Musa laksana setitis air dibandingkan dengan ilmu hamba itu, sedangkan hamba Allah s.w.t itu hanya memperoleh ilmu dari Allah s.w.t sedikit, sebesar air yang terdapat pada paruh burung yang mengambil dari lautan. Allah s.w.t berfirman:
"Maka berjalanlah heduanya, hingga tatkala keduanya menaiki perahu lalu Khidir melubanginya. Musa berkata: 'Mengapa kamu melubangi perahu itu yang akibatnya kamu menenggelamkan penumpangnya? Sesungguhnya kamu telah berbuat sesuatu kesalahan yang besar.' Dia (Khidir) berkata: 'Bukankah aku telah berkata: 'Sesungguhnya kamu sekali-kali tidak akan sabar bersama dengan aku.' Musa berkata: 'Janganlah kamu menghukum aku kerana kelupaanku dan janganlah kamu membebani aku dengan sesuatu kesulitan dalam urusanku.' Maka berjalanlah keduanya; hingga tatkala keduanya berjumpa dengan seorang anak, maka Khidir membunuhnya. Musa berkata: 'Mengapa kamu membunuh jiwa yang bersih itu, bukan kerana dia membunuh orang lain? Sesungguhnya kamu telah melakukan suatu yang mungkar.' Khidir berkata: 'Bukankah sudah kukatakan kepadamu, bahawa sesungguhnya kamu tidak akan sabar bersamaku?' Musa berkata: 'Jika aku bertanya kepadamu tentang sesuatu sesudah (kali) ini, maka janganlah engkau memperbolehkan aku menyertaimu, sesungguhnya kamu sudah cukup memberikan uzur kepadaku.' Maka keduanya berjalan; hingga tatkala keduanya sampai kepada penduduk suatu negeri, mereka minta dijamu kepada penduduk negeri itu, tetapi penduduk negeri itu tidak mau menjamu mereka, kemudian keduanya mendapatkan dalam negeri itu dinding rumah yang hampir roboh, maka Khidir menegakkan dinding itu. Musa berkata: 'Jikalau kamu mau, nescaya kamu mengambil upah untuk itu.' Khidir berkata: 'Inilah perpisahan antara aku dengan kamu. Aku akan memberitahukan kepadamu tujuan perbuatan-perbuatan yang kamu tidak dapat sabar terhadapnya. Adapun bahtera itu adalah kepunyaan orang-orang miskin yang bekerja di laut, dan aku bertujuan merosakkan bahtera itu, kerana di hadapan mereka ada seorang raja yang merampas tiap-tiap bahtera. Dan adapun anak itu maka kedua orang tuanya adalah orang-orang mukmin dan kami khawatir bahawa dia akan mendorong orang tuanya itu kepada kesesatan dan kekafiran. Dan kami menghendaki supaya Tuhan mereka mengganti bagi mereka dengan anak yang lebih baik kesuciannya dari anaknya itu dan lebih dalam dari kasih sayangnya (kepada ibu dan bapaknya). Adapun dinding rumah itu adalah kepunyaan anak yatim di kota itu, dan di bawahnya ada harta benda simpanan bagi mereka berdua, sedang ayahnya seseorang yang soleh, maka Tuhanmu menghendaki supaya mereka sampai kepada kedewasaannya dan mengeluarkan simpanannya itu, sebagai rahmat dari Tuhanmu; dan bukanlah aku melakukannya itu menurut kemahuanku sendiri. Demikian itu adalah tujuan perbuatan-perbuatan yang kamu tidak dapat sabar terhadapnya.'" (QS. al-Kahfi: 71-82)
Hamba soleh itu menyingkapkan dua hal pada Musa: ia memberitahunya bahawa ilmunya, yakni ilmu Musa sangat terbatas, kemudian ia memberitahunya bahawa banyak dari musibah yang terjadi di bumi justru di balik itu terdapat rahmat yang besar. Pemilik perahu itu akan menganggap bahawa usaha melubangi perahu mereka merupakan suatu bencana bagi mereka tetapi sebenarnya di balik itu terdapat kenikmatan, yaitu kenikmatan yang tidak dapat diketahui kecuali setelah terjadinya peperangan di mana raja akan memerintahkan untuk merampas perahu- perahu yang ada. Lalu raja itu akan membiarkan perahu-perahu yang rosak. Dengan demikian, sumber rezeki keluarga-keluarga mereka akan tetap terjaga dan mereka tidak akan mati kelaparan. Demikian juga orang tua anak kecil yang terbunuh itu akan menganggap bahawa terbunuhnya anak kecil itu sebagai musibah, namun kematiannya justru membawa rahmat yang besar bagi mereka kerana Allah s.w.t akan memberi mereka—sebagai ganti darinya—anak yang baik yang dapat menjaga mereka dan melindungi mereka pada saat mereka menginjak masa tua dan mereka tidak akan menampakkan kelaliman dan kekufuran seperti anak yang terbunuh. Demikianlah bahawa nikmat terkadang membawa sesuatu bencana dan sebaliknya, suatu bencana terkadang membawa nikmat. Banyak hal yang lahirnya baik ternyata justru di balik itu terdapat keburukan.
Mula-mula Nabi Allah s.w.t Musa menentang dan mempersoalkan tindakan hamba Allah s.w.t tersebut, kemudian ia menjadi mengerti ketika hamba Allah s.w.t itu menyingkapkan kepadanya maksud dari tindakannya dan rahmat Allah s.w.t yang besar yang tersembunyi dari peristiwa-peristiwa yang terjadi.
Selanjutnya, Musa kembali menemui pembantunya dan menemaninya untuk kembali ke Bani Israil. Sekarang, Musa mendapatkan keyakinan yang luar biasa. Musa telah belajar dari mereka dua hal: yaitu ia tidak merasa bangga dengan ilmunya dalam syariat kerana di sana terdapat ilmu hakikat, dan ia tidak mempersoalkan musibah-musibah yang dialami oleh manusia kerana di balik itu terdapat rahmat Allah s.w.t yang tersembunyi yang berupa kelembutan-Nya dan kasih sayang-Nya. Itulah pelajaran yang diperoleh Nabi Musa as dari hamba ini. Nabi Musa mengetahui bahawa ia berhadapan dengan lautan ilmu yang baru di mana ia bukanlah lautan syariat yang diminum oleh para nabi. Kita berhadapan dengan lautan hakikat, di hadapan ilmu takdir yang tertinggi; ilmu yang tidak dapat kita jangkau dengan akal kita sebagai manusia biasa atau dapat kita cerna dengan logik biasa. Ini bukanlah ilmu eksperimental yang kita ketahui atau yang biasa terjadi di atas bumi, dan ia pun bukan ilmu para nabi yang Allah s.w.t wahyukan kepada mereka.
Kita sekarang sedang membahas ilmu yang baru. Lalu siapakah pemilik ilmu ini? Apakah ia seorang wali atau seorang nabi? Majoriti kaum sufi berpendapat bahawa hamba Allah s.w.t ini dari wali-wali Allah s.w.t. Allah s.w.t telah memberinya sebahagian ilmu laduni kepadanya tanpa sebab-sebab tertentu. Sebahagian ulama berpendapat bahawa hamba soleh ini adalah seorang nabi. Untuk mendukung penyataannya ulama- ulama tersebut menyampaikan beberapa argumentasi melalui ayat Al- Quran yang menunjukkan kenabiannya.
Pertama, firman-Nya:
"Lalu mereka bertemu dengan seorang hamba di antara hamba-ham- ba Kami, yang telah Kami berikan kepadanya rahmat dari sisi Kami, dan yang telah Kami ajarkan kepadanya ilmu dari sisi Kami."
Kedua, perkataan Musa kepadanya:
"Musa berkata kepadanya: 'Bolehkah aku mengikutimu supaya kamu mengajarkan kepadaku ilmu yang benar di antara ilmu-ilmu yang telah diajarkan kepadamu?' Dia menjawab: 'Sesungguhnya kamu sekali-kali tidak akan sanggup sabar bersamaku. Dan bagaimana kamu dapat sabar atas sesuatu, yang kamu belum mempunyai pengetahuan yang cukup tentang hal itu ?' Musa berkata: 'lnsya-Allah kamu akan mendapati aku sebagai orang yang sabar, dan aku tidak akan menentangmu dalam sesuatu urusan pun.' Dia berkata: 'Jika kamu mengikutiku, maka janganlah kamu menanyakan kepadaku tentang sesuatu pun, sampai aku sendiri menerangkannya kepadamu,'" (QS. al-Kahfi: 66-70)
Seandainya ia seorang wali dan bukan seorang nabi maka Musa tidak akan berdialog atau berbicara dengannya dengan cara yang demikian dan ia tidak akan menjawab kepada Musa dengan jawapan yang demikian. Bila ia bukan seorang nabi maka bererti ia tidak maksum sehingga Musa tidak harus memperoleh ilmu dari seseorang wali yang tidak maksum.
Ketiga, Khidir menunjukkan keberaniannya untuk membunuh anak kecil itu melalui wahyu dari Allah s.w.t dan perintah dari-Nya. Ini adalah dalil tersendiri yang menunjukkan kenabiannya dan bukti kuat yang menunjukkan kemaksumannya. Sebab, seorang wali tidak boleh membunuh jiwa yang tidak berdosa dengan hanya berdasarkan kepada keyakinannya dan hatinya. Boleh jadi apa yang terlintas dalam hatinya tidak selalu maksum kerana terkadang ia membuat kesalahan. Jadi, keberanian Khidir untuk membunuh anak kecil itu sebagai bukti kenabiannya.
Keempat, perkataan Khidir kepada Musa:
"Sebagai rahmat dari Tuhanmu; dan bukanlah aku melakukannya itu menurut kemahuanku sendiri. " (QS. al-Kahfi: 82)
Yakni, apa yang aku lakukan bukan dari doronganku sendiri namun ia merupakan perintah dari Allah s.w.t dan wahyu dari-Nya. Demikianlah pendapat para ulama dan para ahli zuhud. Para ulama berpendapat bahawa Khidir adalah seorang Nabi sedangkan para ahli zuhud dan para tokoh sufi berpendapat bahawa Khidir adalah seorang wali dari wali-wali Allah s.w.t.
Salah satu pernyataan Khidir yang sering dikemukakan oleh tokoh sufi adalah perkataan Wahab bin Munabeh, Khidir berkata: "Wahai Musa, manusia akan diseksa di dunia sesuai dengan kadar kecintaan mereka atau kecenderungan mereka terhadapnya (dunia)." Sedangkan Bisyir bin Harits al-Hafi berkata: "Musa berkata kepada Khidir: "Berilah aku nasihat." Khidir menjawab: "Mudah-mudahan Allah s.w.t memudahkan kamu untuk taat kepada-Nya." Para ulama dan para ahli zuhud berselisih pendapat tentang Khidir dan setiap mereka mengklaim kebenaran pendapatnya. Perbezaan pendapat ini berhujung pangkal kepada anggapan para ulama bahawa mereka adalah sebagai pewaris para nabi, sedangkan kaum sufi menganggap diri mereka sebagai ahli hakikat yang mana salah satu tokoh terkemuka dari ahli hakikat itu adalah Khidir. Kami sendiri cenderung untuk menganggap Khidir sebagai seorang nabi kerana beliau menerima ilmu laduni. Yang jelas, kita tidak mendapati nas yang jelas dalam konteks Al-Quran yang menunjukkan kenabiannya dan kita juga tidak menemukan nas yang gamblang yang dapat kita jadikan sandaran untuk menganggapnya sebagai seorang wali yang diberi oleh Allah s.w.t sebahagian ilmu laduni.
Barangkali kesamaran seputar peribadi yang mulia ini memang disengaja agar orang yang mengikuti kisah tersebut mendapatkan tujuan utama dari inti cerita. Hendaklah kita berada di batas yang benar dan tidak terlalu jauh mempersoalkan kenabiannya atau kewaliannya. Yang jelas, ketika kami memasukkannya dalam jajaran para nabi kerana ia adalah seorang guru dari Musa dan seorang ustaz baginya untuk beberapa waktu.
Tips Membuat Presentasi untuk Seminar Proposal Skripsi ( harry-haiqal )
Tips Membuat Presentasi untuk Seminar Proposal Skripsi
Seminar Proposal biasanya berkisar antara 10-15 menit dengan menjelaskan latar belakang, rumusan masalah, tujuan dan ruang lingkup skripsi yang akan kita buat, pada pertengahan seminar akan diajukan beberapa pertanyaan mengenai apa yang akan kita buat, bagaimana dan kapan akan dibuat, terakhir akan diberikan saran, kritik dan masukan yang sekiranya dapat memperbaiki proposal kita.
Berikut adalah tips membuat slide untuk seminar Proposal Skripsi :
· Buatlah slide proposal hanya pointnya saja, dalam hal ini buatlah slide sesingkat mungkin, cantumkan hanya point yang akan anda bicarakan, jangan mengcopy paste isi proposal anda di dalam slide. Hal ini akan mencitrakan diri anda sebagai orang yang tidak menguasai materi.
· Kutiplah sumber yang menjadi argumentasi anda dalam memberikan latar belakang bahwa judul anda layak dijadikan skripsi, misalnya dari pakar yang bersangkutan dan dari beberapa sumber (buku, ebook, jurnal, website independen yang kredibilitasnya tidak diragukan).
· Kuasai materi seminar proposal anda, buatlah catatan kecil sebagai penjelasan singkat dari point yang sudah anda cantumkan dalam slide.
· Berlatihlah 2-3 kali presentasi proposal anda untuk meningkatkan kepercayaan diri anda.
· Bersikap tenang dan fokus, fokuslah pada slide dimana anda sedang presentasikan, berikan agrument untuk setiap pernyataan yang anda kemukakan.
· Jawablah pertanyaan penguji dengan tegas dan singkat, jangan memancing pertanyaan lain yang mungkin akan menjebak anda dalam kegagalan anda dengan tidak dapat menjawab pertanyaan dari penguji.
· Kuasai materi seminar anda, belajar dan berlatih untuk menunjukan diri anda bahwa anda benar-benar menguasai materi yang akan anda seminarkan.
· Jelaskan secara detail ruang lingkup dan batasan masalah dari proposal anda, jelaskan secara rinci bagaimana sistem anda akan bekerja dan bagaimana alurnya.
· Terimalah saran dan kritik dari penguji, yang sekiranya dapat memperbaiki proposal anda, jika diluar koridor dari poposal anda bantahlah dengan argumentasi yang baik dan benar.
Tips Menyusun Proposal Skripsi ( harry_haiqal )
Tips Menyusun Proposal Skripsi yang baik dan benar
Tanda seorang mahasiswa tidak hanya sekedar dilihat dari KTM yang dipunyai, rajinnya demo, hidup di kos-kosan, melakukan ritual makan di warung-warung jadi asisten Pak Bondan Winarno belaka. Secara substantive tanda seorang mahasiswa adalah dia mampu mengungkapkan pikirannya secara ilmiah baik tulisan maupun lisan. Menulis proposal skripsi adalah wahana belajar untuk menjadi cerdas menulis secara ilmiah.
Bagaimana agar sukses membuat proposal skripsi.
- PD: percayalah diri ! saya harus masuk ke jenjang skripsi.
- Carilah topik yang Anda sukai dan menjadi interes Anda. Jangan terlalu ikut-ikutan teman satu geng jika memang tidak paham. Karena orisinilitas berpikir akan membuat Anda tertantang bekerja dan memperjuangkan pemikiran asli Anda.
- Karena Anda baru belajar meneliti, untuk membantu ide Anda buka-bukalah contoh-contoh proposal pilihlah topik yang menarik.
- Bicarakan ide Anda dengan dosen yang Anda pilih menjadi pembimbing, juga terkait: apakah terjangkau waktu dan biaya. Kalau bisa jangan sampai setahun menyelesaikan skripsi, 1 semester cukup. Jika menghadap dosen siapan poin-poin yang akan dibicarakan (buatlah catatan yang akan dibicarakan).
- Jika disetujui, rumuskanlah mengapa ide Anda penting di bagian latar belakang proposal. Berilah argumen-argumen yang masuk akal. Susunlah argumen Anda dari pemikiran yang umum ke pemikiran yang sempit menuju ke pentingnya penelitian dilakukan. Argumen-argumen Anda tentu saja berdasarkan pustaka dan penelitian sebelumnya.
- Jangan pernah dan jangan sekali-kali mengetik ulang dan mengambil kalimat-kalimat dari contoh proposal sebelumnya, itu akan membuat Anda semakin bebal berpikir dan Anda tidak memanfaatkan media menuangkan pemikiran sebaik-baiknya. Anda telah gagal sebagai mahasiswa dalam hal menulis !!. Dosen akan mengetahui hal ini. KAMU KETAHUAN !!
- Berdasarkan latar belakang, rumuskanlah masalah dan hipotesis Anda. Jika saya menjadi dosen Anda, kemampuan merumuskan bagian latar belakang dan masalah yang baik sudah saya beri nilai 60%. Bagian latar belakang ini tidak harus panjang maksimal 1,5-2 halaman cukup, terlalu panjang membuat tidak jelasnya ide Anda
- Setelah itu bagaimana cara Anda menjawab masalah dan hipotesis Anda. Yakni cara apa yang Anda pakai, metode yang digunakan dan apa alat bahannya. Tentu saja alat dan metode berdasarkan ada atau tidaknya.
- Kemudian susunlah waktu dan biaya yang Anda perlukan, sesuaikan dengan subsidi orang tua dan waktu yang Anda punyai. Untuk menghemat dan bekerja secara cerdas Anda bisa melakukan penelitian gabungan dengan teman. Misalnya menggunakan tikus, agar hemat Anda bisa mengukur parameter asam uratnya, teman lain mengukur parameter kolesterol darahnya dll. (bicarakan dengan pembimbing).
- Ingat, Anda hanya mahasiswa S1 yang belajar meneliti, tidak harus menghasilkan karya yang spektakuler. Tidak masalah jika Anda memilih topik yang sama dengan kakak kelas namun ada modifikasi atau diganti bahan yang lain.
- Sebisa mungkin skripsi yang Anda lakukan bukan formalitas namun juga mengasah skill Anda yang berguna untuk bekerja nanti, misal kemampuan analisis dengan HPLC atau GC dll.
- Proposal tidak harus tebal, 10 halaman kadang cukup, baik atau tidaknya proposal tidak dinilai berdasarkan ketebalan namun ungkapan-ungkapan yang sistematis dari Anda.
- Disamping disimpan dalam USB dan hardisk, data lebih aman jika disimpan di email Anda, caranya kirimilah email Anda dengan proposal Anda itu dengan attachment. Terakhir namun penting, buatlah schedule jadwal kapan harus menyelesaikan proposal 1.5 bulan itu maksimal 2 bulan terlalu lama. Jika belum trampil menggunakan komputer, buatlah draft proposal Anda dengan tulisan tangan dulu. Terakhir, meskipun computer masih barang baru bagi Anda, ketiklah proposal Anda sendiri karena Anda akan mendapatkan ketrampilan mengetik.
Sabtu, 19 Januari 2013
Jumat, 05 Oktober 2012
Kamis, 20 September 2012
What is Discourse Analysis? By Harry Haiqal
What is Discourse Analysis?By Harry Haiqal |
The method of discourse analysis is complex and cannot be properly understood without extensive reading. The aim of this web page is to provide you with an outline of the approach so that if you haven't read much about it you can, among other things, decide whether you would like to learn more about the method or whether you would like to carry out research using this approach. An example is provided further down the page to illustrate a popular kind of discourse analysis, which is known as thematic analysis. It includes some examples of transcription symbols.
Discourse analysis is a qualitative method that has been
adopted and developed by social constructionists. Although discourse
analysis can and is used by a handful of cognitive psychologists, it is
based on a view that is largely anti-scientific, though not anti-research.
Social constructionism is not easy to define, but it
is possible to outline some basic assumptions of the approach:
• Psychologists cannot be objective when
studying human behaviour. In the scientific
approach there is the belief that knowledge can be gained by
objectivity (observations made without bias or preconceptions, rather as
though the investigator is an alien from another planet
and has no preconceived notion of what is being observed).
However, this belief has been disputed – people, including researchers,
cannot be objective. A
researcher is very likely to hold some position (expectation,
bias, belief, or
set of cultural values) when they are conducting their research.
The
result is that people can construct their own versions of reality
and not necessarily objective versions either.
• Reality is socially constructed. In the
scientific approach it is assumed that it is possible to categorise
reality, and that ideas or constructs that psychologists use, such as personality and
intelligence, are naturally occurring things or categories. However, this ignores
the fact that language shapes the categories and constructs we use. Since
language is a social and cultural thing, our sense of reality is socially
and culturally constructed.
• People are the products of social interaction.
In the scientific approach it is assumed that many of the constructs used
are ‘inner essences'. That is to say that personality, anxiety, drives,
and so on, exist somewhere within. However, it may
be the case that many of these so-called essences are actually the
products of social interaction.
In order to understand these assumptions, let's look at
the example provided by Burr (1995) on the issue of personality.
The traditional view of personality
Personality consists of a number of traits such as
generosity, shyness, charm, and so on. What makes people different is that
they can be high on some traits and low on others. A further assumption is
that, by and large, personality is stable over time – although a generous
person may have one or two lapses, they are generous most of the time.
Another assumption is that personality influences our behaviour – we
ascribe the inner essence ‘generosity' to someone acting very generously.
This view of personality seems just common sense and it seems to make sense in our
everyday understanding of people.
The social constructionist critique of the traditional view of personality
Personality, it is argued, is a socially
constructed
concept and traits do not exist as inner essences at all. The way
people are arises from
their interactions with other people. When you think about the
traits we use to
describe people, virtually all of them involve actions that can
only take
place with reference to other people. For example, a shy person is
only shy in the presence of others, a
generous person can only be generous to other people, and so on.
One could ask whether such personality traits would still exist in
someone stranded on a desert island!
Social constructionists remind us that since personality
CANNOT be observed directly its existence has to be inferred, and it is
inferred from behaviour. However, someone's behaviour can be very
different depending on the context or situation they are in. Furthermore,
people can be both nice and nasty, that is, behave in opposite ways to the
traits they are commonly described as having.
So, who am I?
By now you may be completely confused, as I was when I
first encountered this viewpoint. If personality and inner essences do not
exist then we must ask ourselves who we are and what makes us who we are?
According to social constructionism each version of ‘you' is a product of
your relationships with others. The word ‘identity' is used to
refer to a person's purpose within a social relationship. In other
words, we have different identities based on who we are with, where we
are, the situation we our in, and so on. The creation and use of such
identities can be understood by psychologists by trying to study the
language that people use. Furthermore, by studying conversations and all
forms of communication we can understand how people and society
‘construct' their own versions of reality.
Why discourse analysis?
Discourse analysis is a way of understanding social
interactions. The researcher acknowledges their own bias and position on
the issue, known as reflexivity. The aims of research
vary: The aim of one
investigator might be to understand power relationships in society
in
order to bring about change; another may be interested in
appearance and how it can shape identify; and another investigator may
be interested in
an interaction or conversation simply for its own sake (in terms
of not knowing what the study might uncover). The research
begins with a research question (and not a hypothesis in the
formal sense)
that is aimed at a theoretical position. A conversation or piece
of text is transcribed and then deconstructed. This involves
attempting to
identify features in the text, such as discourses. A discourse is a
particular theme in the text, especially those that relate to
identities,
for example such as a statement that reiterates a view or claim
that men
find weddings dull, and so on. Topics that have been studied
include men's
friendships, family conversations of the royal family, an
interview with
Princess Diana, media constructions of racism, gender categories
in
discourse, lesbian motherhood, conversations about marriage, men's
talk about fatherhood, and
so on.
How to do a discourse analysis
The first point to note is that in order to do a
discourse analysis you need to have read a handful yourself first. By
reading published articles that use the method, you will have a better
understanding of (1) how to do an analysis and (2) some of the
theoretical
orientations that you will need to know to do your own analysis.
Having
identified a theory and a chosen item (text or recorded conversation)
to
analyse, you need to transcribe it in one of the accepted/published
ways.
The transcript must always appear in the appendices. There are many
different forms of discourse analysis, so here we will focus on thematic
analysis as an example.
What is thematic analysis?
Thematic analysis is about trying to identify
meaningful categories or themes in
a body of data. By looking at the text, the researcher asks
whether
a number of recurring themes can be abstracted about what is being
said. For example, on one level you
might find an inconsistency, an attempt to assign blame, an
attempt to
cite others to support one's views, a regular interruption of
other
people, an attempt to make one's account of some event sound more
authentic, and so on. On another level, you might idenitify a
regulalry occurring attribution of blame or the repeated reference to
some specific cause of an event. The reference might take slightly
different forms but refers to the same cause. An example might be
football fans blaming various aspects of a player's motivation for the
failure of their team (e.g., "he gets so much money, doesn't need to
try", "he looked as though he wasn't bothered", "he didn't want the
ball", and so on).
In the results section of the report, the
themes abstracted are collated and
reported on. In doing so, it is usual to cite from the
transcription
examples of the points you are trying to make. A summary of the
findings can be offered but also a critique of the author's own
interpretations – this refers to the concept of 'reflexivity', that the
author's is only one interpretation of the text.
Transcription Symbols
When transcribing text, a
conventional system of symbols is used. A table of the
symbols used in the transcription can often appear as an appendix, such as the following (some of
which are taken from Potter and Wetherell, 1987):
Symbol |
Meaning |
Example |
|
(.)
|
Short pause
|
Jane: I think that (.) it's possible
|
|
…
|
Interruption
|
Driver: No, I haven't um…
Police officer: Had a drink?
|
|
[
|
Words/phrases spoken at the same time
|
Caller: It makes me want to [swear
Radio host: [Thank you caller
|
|
[---]
|
Illegible
|
Teacher: Turn to page [---]
|
|
[?]
|
Uncertainty of the preceding word
|
Student: Where's Ingrid [Ingrid?]
|
Example report
The following is loosely based on Barker (2003), which is a discourse analytic study of conversations with ‘Goths and Pagans’ – youths who belong to specific subcultures. The paper has been rewritten as an example item of coursework (with the author’s permission). When you read the report you may notice several features that are very different from how a lab experiment is reported.Firstly, there is no attempt to identify causes from an objective perspective – why people choose to wear Goth clothing, but rather the focus is on how Goths themselves perceive their own subculture, their identities within it, and their experiences of how non-Goths perceive them.
Secondly, the shape of the report is quite different – there are no graphs or tables, and no statistics to report. The main source of data is the transcriptions of the interviews and much of the text refers directly to quotes from the transcriptions. There are other differences, too, such as very little ‘theoretical integration’ in the discussion and little attempt to say how one could follow up the research.
Thirdly, there is some discussion of the reliability and validity of the method, but this is cannot carried out in the same way as would be done for a report on a lab experiment. Note the fact that a discourse analysis is ‘text intensive’, there being a limited space to cover other aspects. However, one way in which the student has saved words in the main body of the report is to number the quotes and recording them as an appendix. Then in the text, rather than citing from the transcript, the student just refers to ‘Quote 4 in Appendix B’ and so on.
If you have become more comfortable with the more traditional approaches in psychology, such as the lab experiment, then you may find the report difficult to read. I have to confess feeling slightly uneasy about recommending a discourse analysis for a beginner. However, there is certainly something to be said for this approach and if you do feel happy to use this method, then
go for it!
Barker, M. (2003). Satanic subcultures? A discourse analysis of the self-perceptions of young goths and pagans. In T. Waddell (Ed.) Cultural Expressions of Evil and Wickedness: Wrath, Sex, and Crime. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Title: Self-identities of ‘Goths’ and ‘Pagans’: A discourse analysis of a youth subculture
Abstract
The self-identities of two youth subcultures, Goths and Pagans, are explored in this study using the method of discourse analysis. The purpose was to understand how these youths construct their self-identities within their subculture. Five Goths and four Pagans were interviewed by the researcher and the tape recordings were transcribed for the purposes of analysis. Several themes were identified in the analysis, such as the identities of ‘persecuted outsider’, ‘otherness’, and ‘being different is good’. Some contradictions were noted, such as ‘we are just ordinary people under attack’.
Introduction
The subculture known as Goth emerged in the 1980s with the music of post-punk UK bands, such as Siouxsie and the Banshees. Goth is associated with a particular style of dress, which generally involves wearing black clothing, silver jewellery, a pale complexion, and dyed hair. However, there is some variety in this style and Goths may be found wearing silver and have spiky hair. Paganism is often claimed to be an alternative form of belief to Christianity that has had a history of being suppressed and oppressed by Christians. However, many historians claim that Paganism only emerged quite recently – at the start of the twentieth century. Goths and Pagans are linked in many ways. Firstly, they are both outside mainstream culture. Secondly, both often wear jewellery that has Pagan symbols on it. Thirdly, both groups have been labelled by mainstream culture as satanic, evil, and dangerous.
Several recent crimes have been linked to Goths. One of these was the 1966 Florida‘vampire murders’ that was supposed to have been done by members of a ‘vampire cult’ (Whitworth, 1999). Another was the 1999 ‘trenchcoat killings’ in which two teenage boys shot and killed thirteen people at their Denver school. In the UK the London bomber David Copeland was recently ‘linked’ to the Goth culture (Smith, 1999). In Germany, two murderers were claimed to have been devil worshipers, being involved in a Gothic club, bloodsucking, and graveyard parties. Many of the articles rely on the construct that Goths and violence are linked in a taken-for-granted common sense way.
The main social psychological theory of how individuals in subcultures create identities is ‘social identity theory’ (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). This suggests that people organise their perceptions of themselves and others by a process of categorising others into groups, and then identifying with one group as opposed to another. Our sense of self-esteem is said to come from how we compare our group with that of others. People tend to exaggerate the similarities between members of their group and exaggerate the differences between members of their group and members of other groups. This approach has been criticised for its failure to focus on any groups other than ‘traditional’ groups (Wetherell, 1996). A related theory is that of Baumeister (1996) who has argued that when we are attacked by others we tend to fall back into relying on our group identity, seeing our group as good and innocent and the other group as sadistic and motiveless. A common theme of these theories is the notion of ‘us and them’ to describe experience. However, Widdicombe (1993) has argued that such research has ignored how members of subcultures understand the meaning and significance of their subculture, and that this can be addressed by using discourse analysis.
Discourse analysis examines how people use language to construct versions of their experiences, and is based on the assumption that people draw on cultural and linguistic resources in order to construct their talk in certain ways to have certain effects. The aim of this investigation is to seek to understand how the accounts of the identities of Goths and Pagans are constructed and what is gained from these constructions.
Method
Participants
9 students studying for their A-levels at a local college were recruited based on their clear physical identity as a Goth or Pagan. 7 were women and 2 were men, but this does not seem to reflect the male-female ratio of the subculture as a whole, which appears to be equally mixed. All interviewees were known to the researcher, but none were regarded as close friends.
Materials
The conversations were recorded using a mobile digital recorder and were later transcribed by playing the recordings on a computer system. The transcription code used was:
(.) - short pause between words
(…) - long pause between words
(12) - a 12 second pause between words
X - means that we could not understand what was said
So she said..
I never did… - two phrases, both underlined means that they were said at the same time
So I said… - bold text was said with an emphasis (i.e., said louder)
The interviewer’s speech begins with the letter I, and other letters are used to identify individual participants.
Procedure
Interviewees were interviewed in three different groups of two, and one group of three. The interviews lasted about one hour. The interviewer asked them questions about their background, how they defined themselves, how they came to become a Goth or Pagan, how they saw the history of their group, and how they felt other people perceived them. The recorded interviews were later transcribed and the full transcript can be found in Appendix A. Appendix B consists of a numbered list of quotations from the transcript that are sourced in the analysis.
Results
The analysis that was conducted revealed a number of themes. The most interesting to the researcher were the identities of ‘persecuted outsider’, ‘otherness’, and ‘being different is good’. Some contradictions were also noted, such as ‘we are just ordinary people under attack’.
Persecuted Outsider
All participants agreed that people from outside their subculture labelled them as evil or Satanic, using the words ‘Satanist’, ‘freaks’, or ‘witches’, when asked how they are perceived. Quote 1 in Appendix B shows two examples. It is interesting that both N and D use the same wording in their examples, ‘oo Satanism’. This is known as active voicing (Wooffitt, 1992) when reporting someone else’s speech within an account of what really happened. Utterances reported in this way may be used to imply that they were really said at the time (Hutchby and Wooffitt, 1998). Both D and N also use hypothetical illustration (Wooffitt, 1992). The situation ‘oo Satanism’ is not one single event and is used to imply that it has happened many times. This is supported by D’s remark ‘So it’s really common’.
By putting on a dumb or silly voice when imitating other people, it is obvious that they regard such views as ridiculous. D’s example is especially clear because she voices with bad English ‘you’s all Satanists’ implying her view that people with such prejudices are generally ‘pig ignorant’.
The experienced prejudice was also supported by some stories, such as that of G when someone was violent towards him (see Quote 2, Appendix B). Here G and C both construct themselves as reasonable people in unreasonable situations, using a format Wooffitt (1992) refers to as ‘I was just X … when Y’. They were just doing something normal when they were attacked by ‘drunks’. G also uses the word ‘random’ when describing receiving abuse ‘yelling random things’ and later with his claim of the unpredictability of whether one reacts or not to abuse. These emphasise the random, chaotic nature of the attacks they received. This fits with Baumeister’s (1996) myth of pure evil: the common way in which people construct themselves – we are good, innocent victims provoked by sadistic, chaotic attackers.
Otherness
Both groups said that they felt that ‘people’ or ‘they’ perceive them in a negative way. This suggests that they construct themselves as being ‘outside’ mainstream culture (see Quote 3, Appendix B). The construction here is of an identity of a group that defines themselves more favourably than the norm. In discussing the perception that they are linked to violence most made it clear that they are strongly opposed to doing harm (see Quote 4, Appendix B). Many cited this ‘harm none thing’ as a device to show that they could not be involved in evil in any way (see Quote 5, Appendix B). Here C uses stake inoculation (Potter, 1996); she initially expresses doubt about the truth of her claim (I don’t have much experience of this). Potter argues that such expressions of uncertainty allow speakers to establish that they have no stake in what they are saying. She combines this with expert knowledge to display that she actually does know about Satanism and can show that it differs from her own beliefs. She uses the externalising device ‘what I’ve read is …’ to construct her understanding of Satanism as factual (Edwards and Potter, 1992). When A talks about not being evil she uses the same devices (see Quote 6, Appendix B). Here A uses two three-part lists (Jefferson, 1991) to illustrate quite how different she is from the assumptions that are made about her by the ‘god squad’. Jefferson says that a three-part list is a culturally available resource for list construction which we often use in everyday conversation. Listing these behaviours together indicates a broader class of things that A does not do, backing up her contention that she is gentle and not evil.
The interviewees spent some time talking about the claim that their style of dress is merely to get attention. G and C both counter this notion by stating that they get more of a reaction from people they know when they wear non-Goth clothing (see Quote 7, Appendix B). So they do admit that they partly aim to get a reaction or at least enjoy getting a reaction from people by dressing as they do. Occasionally they suggested that they wear Goth clothes to divert attention away from other physical aspects of themselves, such as their height or weight.
Often the interviewees told the history of Paganism as the story of a group of persecuted outsiders. This is echoed by the stories they tell about their own persecution.
Reliability and Validity
The question of reliability in discourse analysis concerns whether different researchers would interpret the text in similar ways. According to Stratton (1997), there is no guarantee that such reliability is possible, given that researchers are likely to differ in their ‘motivational factors, expectations, familiarity, avoidance of discomfort’ (p.116). Therefore it has to be accepted that the interpretations of the data in this report are subjective and another researcher may interpret the data differently. In terms of validity, the method can be said to have greater ecological validity since it deals more with everyday experiences than those that are often studied in the laboratory.
Conclusions
The participants were aware of their role as ‘outsiders’. They spoke about prejudice from ‘people’ and ‘them’, suggesting that society perceives them negatively. They identified themselves in contrast to the ‘mainstream’ and the ‘norm’, generally constructing this as rule-governed, inflexible and intolerant, whilst their own group was free, open-minded, and accepting. They generally constructed their identities in contrast to ‘normal’ people of their age who followed fashion and trendy music. They have responded to accusations of ‘otherness’ and ‘difference’ by embracing these qualities as positive. The idea of otherness involved some interesting contradictions. When relating experiences of prejudice, the interviewees often used ‘normalising devices’, constructing themselves as ‘ordinary people’ under attack. At other points, however, they constructed the ‘norm’ as something they wished to avoid. Most people use contradicting rhetorical devices at different times, when we are trying to create specific effects (Potter, 1996). The discourse of being an ‘everyday person’ encourages other people to sympathise, whereas the discourse of being ‘different’ emphasises individuality and uniqueness. In terms of future research, it might be interesting to interview non-Goths and analyse their discourses in terms of their perceptions and how they construct the identities of youths in such a subculture.
Word count: 1, 982.
References
Baumeister, R. F. (1996). Evil: Inside Human Violenece and Cruelty. Freeman
Edwards, D. and Potter, J. (1992) Discursive Psychology. London: Sage.
Hutchby, I. and Wooffitt, R. (1998). Conversation Analysis. Cambrdige: Polity Press.
Jefferson, G. (1991). List construction as a task and a resource. In G. Psathas and R. Frankel (Eds.) Interactional Competence. Hilldale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Potter, J. (1996) Representing Reality: Discourse, Rhetoric and Social Construction. London: Sage.
Smith, A. (1999). Have you got what it takes? The Sunday Times, 9th May, Culture, p.12.
Tajfel and Turner (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In G.W.Autin and S. Worchel (Eds.) The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Montery, California: Brooks/Cole.
Wetherell, M. (1996). Identities, Groups and Social Issues. Milton Keynes: OU Press.
Whitworth, D. (1999) Gloomy tribal craze that was born in Britain. The Times 22nd, April, p.5.
Widdicombe, S. (1993). Autibiography and change: Rhetoric and authenticity of Gothic style. In E. Burman and I. Parker (Eds.) Discourse Analytic Research: Repertiores and Readings of Texts in Action. London: Routledge.
Wooffitt, R. (1992). Telling Tales of the Unexpected. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Appendix A
[full transcript would be inserted here].
Appendix B.
Quote 1.
N: the symbol of the pentagram (.) um (.) which people (.) when they see it they automatically think (.) ‘oo Satanism’ (…) coz a friend of mine went to get a tattoo (.) and he wanted a pentagram (.) and the guy said ‘oh you’re a Satanist are you’ (laughs).
D: always worn a pentagram ring (5) people have always looked at it and gone ‘oo oo Satanism’ [dumb voice] and (..) ‘you’s all Satanists’ (.) yeah I’ve often had to defend myself against allegations. So it’s really common.
Quote 2.
G: I mean when we were walking up [road name] there was about twenty (.) odd people who started yelling random things at us and one guy decided he was gonna come down and do something about it and he hit me around the head with a beer can
C: It was um (.) I think they were all drunk and we probably should’ve ignored them more than we did (.) it’s hard when people make sort of (.) stupid ignorant comments not to really
G: yeah I mean I’ve tried it both ways tried ignoring them and then you get something whack on your back
Quote 3.
G: I just don’t get on with townie normals because they have the view that you must dress like this you must wear named brands and you must like clubby music
S: I view people who dress in a conformist way as people who (.) don’t think for themselves people who (.) take the easy option and wear what they are told to wear
Quote 4.
C: we don’t try to (.) harm others (.) if you (.) if someone actually does like to start (.) doing curses or whatever that person (.) couln’t be classaed as a Pagan because they have the harm none thing
Quote 5.
C: I don’t really have much experience of this (.) but what I’ve read is um the idea is that Satan rebelled against god so (.) Satan was saying that I’m (.) I am you know (.) on my own I can you know do things for myself (.) I don’t need you and that’s what a lot of Satanists think
Quote 6.
A: I just say that I can’t be a Statnist I don’t believe in god (.) you can’t have one without the other (.) but they don’t seem to get it … I mean I am (.) like a (.) I’m basically quite a gentle person (.) I’m not actually that violent (.) I don’t steal I don’t do drugs (.) certainly don’t go robbing things and bashing
old ladies and taking herion.
Quote 7.
S: at school I always dressed differently and that always caused problems on non-uniform day everybody would sort of (.) stare at me (.) but I started to thrive on it (.) and play up to it and now I’ve just come to accept that they will stare and I should perhaps take it as a compliment although in the daytime I dress down because I still don’t want to get (.) stared at too much.
Minggu, 24 Juni 2012
SEVEN THEORIES OF SLA
SEVEN THEORIES OF SLA:
1.The Acculturation Model
Brown (1980) defined 'as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture'. In addition, an elaborated version of Schumann's model--the Nativization Model-- is discussed, with reference to Andersen (1980;1981;1983b) “... second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the terget language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language.(Schumann 1978:34)
Acculturation, and hence SLA determined by the degree of social and psycological distance between the learner and the language culture. Schumann (1978b) lists the various factors that determined them. The social variables govern whether the learning is 'good' or 'bad' . The psycological factors are effective in nature. They include 1) language shock 2) culture shock 3) motivation and 4) ego boudaries.
The Nativization Model
Andersen builds on Schumann's acculturation model, in particular by providing a cognitive dimension which Schumann does not consider. He, to a much greater extent, is concerned with learning processes. Andersen sees two general forces; nativization and denativization. Nativization consists of assimilation while denativization involves accomodation.
Evaluation; The acculturation and nativist models focus on the power mechanisms of SLA. They provide explanations of why L2 learners, unlike first language learners, often fail to achieve a native-like competence. The acculturation and nativization Models address naturalistic SLA, where the L2 learners has contact with the target language community.
2.Accomodation Theory
Giles concerns to investigate how intergroup uses language reflect basic social and psycological attitudes in inter etnic communication. Giles agrees with Gardner(1979) that motivation is the primary determinant of L2 proviciency. This is governed by a number of key variables: 1) Identification of the individual learner with his ethnic in group. 2) Inter – ethnic comparison. 3) perception of ethno-linguistic vitality. 4) Perception of in group boundaries. 5) Identification with other ingroup social categories. Accomodation theory also accounts for learner's variable linguistic output. Giles et al.(1977) writes ...people are continually modifyng their speech with others so as to reduce or accentuate the linguistic(and hence) social differences between them depending on their perception of the interactive situation.
Evaluation; This theory does not explain assembly mechanisms nor account for the developmental sequence. The strenght of accomodation theory is that it encompasses language acquisition and language use within a single framework. This theory provides an explanation of language-learner language variability.
3.Discourse Theory
Halliday(1975) shows that the development of the formal linguistic devices for realizing basic language function grows out of the interpersonal uses to which language is put. As Cherry (1979: 122) puts it: Through communicating with other people, children accomplish actions in the world and develop the rules of language structure and use. This view of how the development takes place is called discourse theory. The main principles by Hatch(1978c;1978d)
are: 1) SLA follow a 'natural' route in syntatical development. 2) Native speaker adjust their speech in order to negotiate meaning with non-native speakers. 3) The conversational strategies used to negotiate meaning, and the resulting adjusted input, influence the rate and route of SLA in a number of ways, namely: a) the learner learns the grammar of the L2 in the same order as the frequency order of the various features in the input. b) the learner acquire commonly occuring formulas and then later analyses these into their component parts; c) learner is helped to construct sentences vertically; vertical structures are the percursors of horizontal structues. 4) Thus, the'natural' route is the result of learning how to hold conversations.
Evaluation; the basic question that second language acquisition research addresses is: how can we describe the process of second language acquisition. (Hatch 1980:177—my italic). He tries to provide an answer to his question by qualitative analyses of face-to-face interaction involving L2 learners. Hatch herself notes: We have not been able (nor have we tried) to show how, or if, making messages simpler or more transparent promotes language learning (1980 :181). Hatch is too aware of the huge leap that is made from 'low infernce descriptions' to 'high -inference explanation'. The discourse theory does not address the nature of the learner strategies responsible for SLA.
4.The monitor Model
The theory is seriuosly flawed in a number of respects, in particular in its treatment of language-learner variability. The model consists of five hypothesis; 1) the acquisition learning hypothesis. 2) the natural order hypothesis. 3) the monitor hypothesis. Krashen argues that monitoring has an extremely limited function in language performance, even where adult are concerned. He gives three conditions for its use; a) there must be sufficient time. b) the focus must be on form and not meaning and. c) the user must know the rule. 4) the input hypothesis, input that comprehensible to the learner will automatically be at the right level. 5) the affective filter hypothesis. It deals with how affective factors relate to SLA, and covers the ground of the Acculturation model. Causative variables taken into account in the Monitor Model. Krashen also discusses a number of other factors; a) aptitude. b) role of the first language c) routines and patterns. d) individual differences and e) age.
Evaluation; Three central issues for detailed consideration are the 'acquisition-learning' distinction, it has been called 'theological', it has been formulated in order to specific goal, namely that succesful SLA is the result of 'acquisition' (James 1980). the monitor, the only evidence for monitoring lies in the language user's own account of trying to apply explicit rules ( e.g Cohen and Robbins 1976) and Krashen's treatment of variability , Variability the monitor model is a'dual competence' theory of SLA. It proposes that the learner's knowledge of the L2, which is reflected in variable performance, is best characterized in terms of two separate competence, which Krashen labels'acquisition' and 'learning' .
5.The Variable Competence Model
The model is based on two distinctions—one of which refers to the process of language use and the product. The process of language use is to be understood in terms of the distnction between linguistic knowledge and the ability to make use of this knowledge. Widowson (1984) refers to a knowledge of rules as a competence and to a knowledge of the procedures involved in using rules to construct discourse as capacity. It follows from this view of the process of language use that the product, different types of discourse is the result of either or both of the variable competence and variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse. Procedures for actualizing knowledge are of two types, which Ellis(1984a) refers to as primary and secondary processes each set of processes refered as dicourse and cognitive processes respectively. Discourse process: simplify the semantic structures of a masages by omitting meaning element that are communicatively redundant or that can be realized by a non verbal devices (e.g mime). Cognitive process: a). Construct an underlying conceptual structures of a massage b). Compare this structure with the frame of reference share with and interlecutor c). Eliminate redundant element and element for which know lexical item is available. To summarize this model, proposes: 1). There is a single knowdlege store containing variable interlanguage rules according how automatic and how analyzed the rules are. 2). The learner possesses a capacity for language uses which consist of primary and secondary discourse and cognitive processes. 3). L2 performance is variable as a result of whether primary processes employing unanalized L2 Rules are utilized in unplanned discourse or secondary process employing analized L2 rules are utilized in planed discourse. 4). Development occurs as a result of acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse and activation of L2 rules which initialy exist in either non automatic unanalized form or in an analized form so they can be used in unplaned dicourse.
Evaluation.: The variable competence model of SLA attemps to account for the availability of languages learners and the external and internal processes responsible for SLA.
6.The universal hypothesis
The universal hypothesis provides an interesting account of how the languages properties of the target language and the learner's first language may influence the course development. The value the universal hypothesis for SLA teory is twofold :1. it a focuses attention on the natural of the taget laguages it self. Wode's (980 b: 136/7) claims the linguistic devices used in a given languages are the major variable determining linguistic sequences 2. it provides a subtle and pesuasive reconsederation of transfer as an important factor in SLA.
7.A neurofucntional theory
Lamendella (1979:5/6) defines, A neurofucntional perspective on language attempts to characterize the neurolinguistic information processing systems responsible for the development and use of language. Hacth (1983a: 213) puts it, 'there is no single “black box” for language in the brain'. Therefore, it is better to speak of'the relative contribution of some areas more than others under certain condition'(Selinger 1982:309). Neurofucntional accounts of SLA have considered the contribution of The left hemisphere and The right hemisphere of the brain. Right hemisphere functioning is generally asscociated with holistic processing, it has been suggested (e.g by Obler 1981; Krashen 1981a) that the right hemisphere is responsible for the storing and processing of formulaic speech. The right hemisphere may also involved in pattern practice in classroom SLA. Selinger (1982) suggest that it may act as an initial staging mechanism for handling patterns which can then be re-examined later in left hemisphere functioning. Left hemisphere functioning, in general the left hemisphere is asscociated with the creative language use, including syntatic and semantic processing and the motor operations involved in speaking and writing. Walsh and Diller (1981) distinguish two board types of functioning, lower order functioning and higher order functioning.
Lamendella's Neurofucntional theory
Lamendella distnguishes two basic of types of language acquisition: (1) Primary language acquisition and (2) Secondary language acquisition. (1) is found I the child 's acquisition of one or more languages from 2 to 5 years. (2) is subdivided into a) foreign language learning b) second language acquisition. Lamendella pinpoints two systems as particularly important for language functioning; (1) The communication hierarchy: this has responsibility for language and other form of interpersonal communication. (2) The cognitive hierarchy: this control a variety of cognitive information processing activities that are also part of language use. Foreign language acquisition is marked by the use of the input and also affect the operation of learner strategies. Input comprises the inherent properties of the target language system and the formally and interactionally adjusted features found in foreigner and teacher talk
1.The Acculturation Model
Brown (1980) defined 'as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture'. In addition, an elaborated version of Schumann's model--the Nativization Model-- is discussed, with reference to Andersen (1980;1981;1983b) “... second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the terget language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language.(Schumann 1978:34)
Acculturation, and hence SLA determined by the degree of social and psycological distance between the learner and the language culture. Schumann (1978b) lists the various factors that determined them. The social variables govern whether the learning is 'good' or 'bad' . The psycological factors are effective in nature. They include 1) language shock 2) culture shock 3) motivation and 4) ego boudaries.
The Nativization Model
Andersen builds on Schumann's acculturation model, in particular by providing a cognitive dimension which Schumann does not consider. He, to a much greater extent, is concerned with learning processes. Andersen sees two general forces; nativization and denativization. Nativization consists of assimilation while denativization involves accomodation.
Evaluation; The acculturation and nativist models focus on the power mechanisms of SLA. They provide explanations of why L2 learners, unlike first language learners, often fail to achieve a native-like competence. The acculturation and nativization Models address naturalistic SLA, where the L2 learners has contact with the target language community.
2.Accomodation Theory
Giles concerns to investigate how intergroup uses language reflect basic social and psycological attitudes in inter etnic communication. Giles agrees with Gardner(1979) that motivation is the primary determinant of L2 proviciency. This is governed by a number of key variables: 1) Identification of the individual learner with his ethnic in group. 2) Inter – ethnic comparison. 3) perception of ethno-linguistic vitality. 4) Perception of in group boundaries. 5) Identification with other ingroup social categories. Accomodation theory also accounts for learner's variable linguistic output. Giles et al.(1977) writes ...people are continually modifyng their speech with others so as to reduce or accentuate the linguistic(and hence) social differences between them depending on their perception of the interactive situation.
Evaluation; This theory does not explain assembly mechanisms nor account for the developmental sequence. The strenght of accomodation theory is that it encompasses language acquisition and language use within a single framework. This theory provides an explanation of language-learner language variability.
3.Discourse Theory
Halliday(1975) shows that the development of the formal linguistic devices for realizing basic language function grows out of the interpersonal uses to which language is put. As Cherry (1979: 122) puts it: Through communicating with other people, children accomplish actions in the world and develop the rules of language structure and use. This view of how the development takes place is called discourse theory. The main principles by Hatch(1978c;1978d)
are: 1) SLA follow a 'natural' route in syntatical development. 2) Native speaker adjust their speech in order to negotiate meaning with non-native speakers. 3) The conversational strategies used to negotiate meaning, and the resulting adjusted input, influence the rate and route of SLA in a number of ways, namely: a) the learner learns the grammar of the L2 in the same order as the frequency order of the various features in the input. b) the learner acquire commonly occuring formulas and then later analyses these into their component parts; c) learner is helped to construct sentences vertically; vertical structures are the percursors of horizontal structues. 4) Thus, the'natural' route is the result of learning how to hold conversations.
Evaluation; the basic question that second language acquisition research addresses is: how can we describe the process of second language acquisition. (Hatch 1980:177—my italic). He tries to provide an answer to his question by qualitative analyses of face-to-face interaction involving L2 learners. Hatch herself notes: We have not been able (nor have we tried) to show how, or if, making messages simpler or more transparent promotes language learning (1980 :181). Hatch is too aware of the huge leap that is made from 'low infernce descriptions' to 'high -inference explanation'. The discourse theory does not address the nature of the learner strategies responsible for SLA.
4.The monitor Model
The theory is seriuosly flawed in a number of respects, in particular in its treatment of language-learner variability. The model consists of five hypothesis; 1) the acquisition learning hypothesis. 2) the natural order hypothesis. 3) the monitor hypothesis. Krashen argues that monitoring has an extremely limited function in language performance, even where adult are concerned. He gives three conditions for its use; a) there must be sufficient time. b) the focus must be on form and not meaning and. c) the user must know the rule. 4) the input hypothesis, input that comprehensible to the learner will automatically be at the right level. 5) the affective filter hypothesis. It deals with how affective factors relate to SLA, and covers the ground of the Acculturation model. Causative variables taken into account in the Monitor Model. Krashen also discusses a number of other factors; a) aptitude. b) role of the first language c) routines and patterns. d) individual differences and e) age.
Evaluation; Three central issues for detailed consideration are the 'acquisition-learning' distinction, it has been called 'theological', it has been formulated in order to specific goal, namely that succesful SLA is the result of 'acquisition' (James 1980). the monitor, the only evidence for monitoring lies in the language user's own account of trying to apply explicit rules ( e.g Cohen and Robbins 1976) and Krashen's treatment of variability , Variability the monitor model is a'dual competence' theory of SLA. It proposes that the learner's knowledge of the L2, which is reflected in variable performance, is best characterized in terms of two separate competence, which Krashen labels'acquisition' and 'learning' .
5.The Variable Competence Model
The model is based on two distinctions—one of which refers to the process of language use and the product. The process of language use is to be understood in terms of the distnction between linguistic knowledge and the ability to make use of this knowledge. Widowson (1984) refers to a knowledge of rules as a competence and to a knowledge of the procedures involved in using rules to construct discourse as capacity. It follows from this view of the process of language use that the product, different types of discourse is the result of either or both of the variable competence and variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse. Procedures for actualizing knowledge are of two types, which Ellis(1984a) refers to as primary and secondary processes each set of processes refered as dicourse and cognitive processes respectively. Discourse process: simplify the semantic structures of a masages by omitting meaning element that are communicatively redundant or that can be realized by a non verbal devices (e.g mime). Cognitive process: a). Construct an underlying conceptual structures of a massage b). Compare this structure with the frame of reference share with and interlecutor c). Eliminate redundant element and element for which know lexical item is available. To summarize this model, proposes: 1). There is a single knowdlege store containing variable interlanguage rules according how automatic and how analyzed the rules are. 2). The learner possesses a capacity for language uses which consist of primary and secondary discourse and cognitive processes. 3). L2 performance is variable as a result of whether primary processes employing unanalized L2 Rules are utilized in unplanned discourse or secondary process employing analized L2 rules are utilized in planed discourse. 4). Development occurs as a result of acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse and activation of L2 rules which initialy exist in either non automatic unanalized form or in an analized form so they can be used in unplaned dicourse.
Evaluation.: The variable competence model of SLA attemps to account for the availability of languages learners and the external and internal processes responsible for SLA.
6.The universal hypothesis
The universal hypothesis provides an interesting account of how the languages properties of the target language and the learner's first language may influence the course development. The value the universal hypothesis for SLA teory is twofold :1. it a focuses attention on the natural of the taget laguages it self. Wode's (980 b: 136/7) claims the linguistic devices used in a given languages are the major variable determining linguistic sequences 2. it provides a subtle and pesuasive reconsederation of transfer as an important factor in SLA.
7.A neurofucntional theory
Lamendella (1979:5/6) defines, A neurofucntional perspective on language attempts to characterize the neurolinguistic information processing systems responsible for the development and use of language. Hacth (1983a: 213) puts it, 'there is no single “black box” for language in the brain'. Therefore, it is better to speak of'the relative contribution of some areas more than others under certain condition'(Selinger 1982:309). Neurofucntional accounts of SLA have considered the contribution of The left hemisphere and The right hemisphere of the brain. Right hemisphere functioning is generally asscociated with holistic processing, it has been suggested (e.g by Obler 1981; Krashen 1981a) that the right hemisphere is responsible for the storing and processing of formulaic speech. The right hemisphere may also involved in pattern practice in classroom SLA. Selinger (1982) suggest that it may act as an initial staging mechanism for handling patterns which can then be re-examined later in left hemisphere functioning. Left hemisphere functioning, in general the left hemisphere is asscociated with the creative language use, including syntatic and semantic processing and the motor operations involved in speaking and writing. Walsh and Diller (1981) distinguish two board types of functioning, lower order functioning and higher order functioning.
Lamendella's Neurofucntional theory
Lamendella distnguishes two basic of types of language acquisition: (1) Primary language acquisition and (2) Secondary language acquisition. (1) is found I the child 's acquisition of one or more languages from 2 to 5 years. (2) is subdivided into a) foreign language learning b) second language acquisition. Lamendella pinpoints two systems as particularly important for language functioning; (1) The communication hierarchy: this has responsibility for language and other form of interpersonal communication. (2) The cognitive hierarchy: this control a variety of cognitive information processing activities that are also part of language use. Foreign language acquisition is marked by the use of the input and also affect the operation of learner strategies. Input comprises the inherent properties of the target language system and the formally and interactionally adjusted features found in foreigner and teacher talk
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)